SOURCE: HC 60 .U5 U583 AUTHOR: Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Government DOCTITLE: United States and Development Assistance SECTITLE: United States and Development Assistance DATE: 1992 SUBJECT: foreign assistance development assistance foreign aid United States Agency for International Development USAID World Bank bilateral assistance PUBLISHER: Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government DOCTYPE: Book TITLEID: ISBN_ISSN: Text: THE UNITED STATES AND DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE BACKGROUND PAPERS FOR THE TASK FORCE ON DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS JUNE 1992 The goal of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government is a nation better prepared to respond to the opportunities and hazards of scientific and technological advances. The Commission was established by Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1988 to assess, and recommend improvements in, the mechanisms by which the federal government and the states incorporate scientific and technological (S&T) knowledge into policy and decision making. The Commission's special focus is on the organization of government as it affects decision-making processes, rather than on specific policy options. The Commission is considering how government can be better organized so that policy options can be systematically formulated using the best available S&T expertise; what mechanisms for analysis need to be strengthened or created; and what technical competency is needed in government. Since policy-making in a democratic society requires balancing diverse and competing goals and values, the Commission is equally concerned that S&T- based policy options be framed in ways that are readily intelligible and accessible both to policymakers and the people who elect them. The Commission is an independent bipartisan body with a five-year charter. In addition to eminent scientists and engineers, the Commission and its Advisory Council include former officials who have served at high levels of government, as well as leaders from the private sectors of American society. This collection of background papers was prepared for the Commission's Task Force on Development Organizations. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Government or of the Task Force. CONTENTS PREFACE 1.0 FOREIGN ASSISTANCE LEGISLATION Susan Raymond 2.0 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: ORGANIZATIONAL SKETCHES Susan Raymond 3.0 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AT THE U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Susan Raymond 4.0 USAID: ORGANIZATIONAL UPDATE Susan Raymond 5.0 DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING A MULTIAGENCY PROJECT: THE VACCINE PROGRAM IN INDIA Susan Raymond 6.0 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT: LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE IN DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE OUTSIDE THE U.S. Charles Weiss 7.0 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DECISION-MAKING AT THE WORLD BANK Charles Weiss 8.0 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL DECISION-MAKING IN JAPANESE BILATERAL ASSISTANCE Edgar C. Harrell 9.0 THREE TECHNICAL PROGRAMS OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION David Mosher 10.0 LESSONS FROM EIGHT `REFORM COMMISSIONS' ON THE ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN U.S. BILATERAL ASSISTANCE Charles Weiss 11.0 ABOUT THE AUTHORS 12.0 MEMBERS OF THE CARNEGIE COMMISSION ON SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND GOVERNMENT 13.0 MEMBERS OF THE ADVISORY COUNCIL, CARNEGIE COMMISSION ON SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND GOVERNMENT 14.0 MEMBERS OF THE TASK FORCE ON DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS PREFACE The Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government was established in 1988 to determine ways in which the United States Government could better promote and utilize scientific and technological advances. As part of this work, the Task Force on Development Organizations was created to examine the foreign assistance work of the Government, and to determine ways in which that work could be strengthened, particularly through the more effective use of science and technology. The Task Force's final report will appear in November 1992. The Task Force on Development Organizations commissioned a series of background papers to provide information on the U.S. Government's development assistance effort, as well as information on development assistance programs of other national governments. Because the level of detail that appears in these papers will not appear in the final report of the Task Force, this document collects those background papers together, in order that they might be made available to the public. The first of the ten chapters details the foreign assistance act of 1961, which created the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and outlined much of its mandate. Also listed are the amendments to this act. The second paper lists the various departments and agencies of the U.S. Government that participate in development assistance, and provides a brief explanation of the function of each group. Chapters 3.0 and 4.0 deal with USAID: its budget, its mandates, and particularly, its organization. Chapter 5.0 is a case study of vaccine development, which illustrates the complexity of designing and implementing a multi-agency project. Chapter 5.0 was prepared in 1989, using 1987-88 data. Because of the size of the task, this information has not been updated; the report is presented as a "snapshot" look at the agency at that particular point in time. Chapters 6.0 through 9.0 illustrate lessons in development assistance gleaned from observations of national agencies other than the U.S. Government, and of multinational groups. Finally, Chapter 10.0 reviews the reports of eight "reform commissions" that previously studied and commented on development assistance within the U.S. Government, and sets forth lessons to be learned from these experts. The views expressed in these background papers are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government or of the Task Force. These papers were compiled by Maryann Roper, Science Consultant at The Carter Center, and Jesse Ausubel, Director of Studies for the Carnegie Commission. 1.0 FOREIGN ASSISTANCE LEGISLATION Susan Raymond This paper was prepared for the October 1990 meeting of the Task Force on Development Organizations of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government, in New York City. Legislation enabling non-military foreign assistance for developing countries consists of a jumble of laws dating from the early 1960s. Most authorities are amendments to the first Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. To implement this Act, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) was created by Executive Order of President John F. Kennedy in November 1961. 1.1 The Legislation The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended, provides the ongoing authorization for USAID, for the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) and for the Peace Corps, as well as for specific programs such as the American Hospitals and Schools Abroad program. Rather than repeal the Act, change in USAID's direction has been accomplished by amendments. After thirty years, the Act has been amended some 78 times. Of those amendments, about 38 have been accomplished by laws which themselves contain additional provisions which, although not changing prior to legislation, add on new program mandates. The 1961 Act is now a Christmas tree of specifics, spelling out which programs will be pursued for which foreign populations up to what dollar limits with what administrative restrictions. Annex 1, the 14 page Table of Contents for foreign assistance acts, provides an illustration of the range of program mandates and priorities imposed on USAID. The Act orders that projects be developed for women, children, endangered species, forests, housing, disasters, cities, farms, refugees, narcotics, employee stock ownership plans, global security, food security, post-harvest losses of food, refugees, locusts, oral rehydration ... the list goes on, including an airport at Pinecreek, Minnesota! Once the authorizations process is complete, an appropriations bill is developed. While the authorizations law, i.e., the Foreign Assistance Act, orders an expenditure in a particular category and may specify a particular level of spending, it is only when money is actually appropriated for that activity that programming can take place. The appropriations constraint on development programming can be just as specific as that of authorizations. In recent years, Congress has seen fit to appropriate Development Assistance (DA) money virtually on a line-item basis. This process of "earmarking" specifies precisely how much money USAID will be allowed to spend on any one program area in an upcoming fiscal year. Moreover, in many areas, the earmarking can become exceedingly fine, specifying expenditures at the level of thousands of dollars in a total appropriation of billions of dollars. For example, the 1989 bill specified the expenditure of $500,000 specifically for orphans of natural disasters, or $1.5 Million for the Caribbean Law Institute, or even $11,500 for the entertainment expenses of USAID. Congressional micro-management of USAID extends beyond the main authorization and appropriations committees. As Annex 2 indicates, there are 21 Committees and 38 Subcommittees in Congress with explicit authority to become involved in U.S.-supported project and program activities in developing countries. 1.2 USAID's Assistance Categories USAID administers two basic types of assistance. First, the Economic Support Fund (ESF), which is designed to provide assistance to countries which are politically important to the United States. ESF appropriations are expended through direct cash transfers, commodity import programs, or specific development projects. Total ESF funds are about $3 Billion. Egypt and Israel account for about 60% of the funds, with 18 other countries sharing the remaining resources. ESF money is appropriated by country account, with amounts per country determined by Congress. Within each country allocation, however, USAID has a relatively free hand to determine the nature and level of sectoral programming. Within the total country limits set by USAID and Congress, program content can be relatively freely set to specific country needs. The second type of resources is called Development Assistance (DA), which is used mainly to fund multi-year projects. Total annual DA appropriations amount to approximately $1.7 Billion. Congress earmarks DA in "functional accounts", i.e., specifically against sectors (health, education, etc.) setting specific levels of expenditure against specific areas. The only DA which is not so constrained is the Development Fund for Africa (about half a billion dollars), which USAID is permitted to allocate as it sees technically fit in the most receptive Sub- Saharan African countries. USAID also programs and administers three other types of funds: the Housing Guarantee Program which creates mortgage funds for developing country housing; the sale and donation of agricultural commodities through the P.L. 480 program, administered together with the Department of Agriculture; and disaster assistance funds and programs. 1.3 Congressionally Targeted Funding: `Earmarking' By mandating a multitude of program directions and earmarking specific funds for their implementation, Congressional oversight of USAID reduces the ability of foreign assistance programs to adjust to changing needs or to respond to new opportunities to support developing country requests which do not conform to mandated program areas. That process of constraint has increased over time. For example, of the over $3 Billion in ESF funding, only 2% is unrestricted by Congress, down from the 44% unrestricted as recently as 1985. Non-earmarked DA (the Africa Fund) amounts to only approximately 28% of total Development Assistance funding. The implications for programming are clear. An example will suffice. Less than a third of the women in Yemen have a primary school education, one of the lowest proportions in the world. Lack of female literacy is considered a major reason for low levels of family planning acceptance and high levels of infant and child mortality in that country, despite decades and hundreds of millions of dollars of donor assistance in these latter two areas. USAID has long recognized the importance of literacy and encouraged Yemen to expand women's programs. If Yemen were tomorrow to decide that women's education was a national priority and were to come to USAID for assistance, USAID would find it difficult to respond. Yemen's programs are funded with DA money which, as noted above, is earmarked by sector. That earmarking has significantly reduced the amount of funding allowed to be allocated to education programs. As a small country, Yemen would be hard pressed to compete for limited funds. The alternate source, the Women In Development program, is authorized not to exceed $10,000,000 worldwide. Equivalently, projects are often designed and given goals not originally intended by requesting governments simply to ensure that they meet Congressionally mandated program areas. The resulting goals may be ones that the Project cannot possibly meet (hence ultimately receiving a poor evaluation) but which ensure that Project funds are approved. Alternatively, Projects in such areas as regional trade development and private enterprise support have languished either for lack of Congressional authorization or for lack of funding in their explicitly earmarked categories. 1.4 Annex 1: Contents Of Foreign Assistance Legislation 1.4.1 Annex I: Part I A. FOREIGN ASSISTANCE CONTENTS Page 1. Foreign Assistance and Arms Export Acts 15 a. The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended (Public Law 87-195) 15 Part I: Chapter 1 -- Policy; Development Assistance Authorization 17 Section 101 -- General Policy 17 Section 102 -- Development Assistance Policy 18 Section 103 -- Agriculture, Rural Development, and Nutrition 25 Section 103A -- Agricultural Research 28 Section 104 -- Population and Health 28 Section 105 -- Education and Human Resources Development 32 Section 106 -- Energy, Private Voluntary Organizations, and Selected Development Activities 34 Section 107 -- Appropriate Technology 38 Section 108 -- Private Sector Revolving Fund 38 Section 109 -- Transfer of Funds 42 Section 110 -- Cost-Sharing and Funding Limits 42 Section 111 -- Development and Use of Cooperatives 43 Section 113 -- Integrating Women Into National Economies 43 Section 116 -- Human Rights 44 Section 117 -- Assistance for Disadvantaged South Africans 47 Section 117 -- Environment and Natural Resources 47 Section 118 -- Tropical Forests 48 Section 119 -- Endangered Species 52 Section 120 -- Sahel Development Program -- Planning 54 Section 121 -- Sahel Development Program -- Implementation 54 Section 122 -- General Authorities 56 Section 123 -- Private and Voluntary Organizations and Cooperatives in Overseas Development 57 Section 124 -- Relatively Least Developed Countries 59 Section 125 -- Project and Program Evaluation 60 Section 126 -- Development and Illicit Narcotics Production 60 Section 127 -- Accelerated Loan Repayments 61 Section 128 -- Targeted Assistance 61 Chapter 2 -- Other Programs 62 Title I -- Multilateral and Regional Development Programs 62 Section 206 -- Regional Development in Africa 62 Section 209 -- Multilateral and Regional Programs 63 Title II -- American Schools and Hospitals Abroad; Prototype Desalting Plant 64 Section 214 -- American Schools and Hospitals Abroad 64 Section 219 -- Prototype Desalting Plant 65 Title III -- Housing and Other Credit Guaranty Programs 66 Section 221 -- Housing Guaranties 66 Section 222 -- Authorization 66 Section 222A -- Agricultural and Productive Credit and Self-Help Community Development Programs 68 Section 223 -- General Provisions 70 Section 224 -- Trade Credit Insurance Program for Central America 73 Section 225 -- Trade Credit Insurance Program for Poland 74 Title IV -- Overseas Private Investment Corporation 76 Section 231 -- Creation, Purpose and Policy 76 Section 231A -- Additional Requirements 79 Section 232 -- Capital of the Corporation 80 Section 233 -- Organization and Management 80 Section 234 -- Investment Insurance and Other Programs 81 Section 234A -- Enhancing Private Political Risk Insurance Industry 87 Section 235 -- Issuing Authority, Direct Investment Fund and Reserves 89 Section 236 -- Income and Revenues 92 Section 237 -- General Provisions Relating to Insurance Guaranty, and Financing Program 92 Section 238 -- Definitions 95 Section 239 -- General Provisions and Powers 96 Section 240 -- Small Business Development 99 Section 240A -- Reports to the Congress 100 Title V -- Disadvantaged Children in Asia 102 Section 241 -- Assistance to Certain Disadvantaged Children in Asia 102 Title IX -- Utilization of Democratic Institutions in Development 103 Section 281 -- Utilization of Democratic Institutions in Development 103 Title XII -- Famine Prevention and Freedom From Hunger 104 Section 296 -- General Provisions 104 Section 297 -- General Authority 106 Section 298 -- Board for International Food and Agricultural Development 107 Section 299 -- Authorization 109 Section 300 -- Annual Report 109 Chapter 3 -- International Organizations and Programs 109 Section 301 -- General Authority 109 Section 302 -- Authorization 112 Section 303 -- Indus Basin Development 115 Section 305 -- Integration of Women 116 Section 306 -- Reports on International Organizations 116 Section 307 -- Withholding for United States Proportionate Share of Certain Programs of International Organizations 117 Chapter 4 -- [See Chapter 4 of Part II] Chapter 5 -- Contingencies 118 Section 451 -- Contingencies 118 Chapter 6 -- Central America Democracy, Peace, and Development Initiative 118 Section 461 -- Statement of Policy 118 Section 462 -- Conditions on Furnishing Assistance 120 Section 463 -- Peace Process in Central America 120 Section 464 -- Economic Assistance Coordination 120 Section 465 -- Authorizations for Fiscal Years 1988 and 1989 122 Section 466 -- Definitions 122 Chapter 7 -- Debt-For-Nature Exchanges 122 Section 461 -- Definition 122 Section 462 -- Assistance for Commercial Debt Exchanges 122 Section 463 -- Eligible Projects 123 Section 464 -- Eligible Countries 123 Section 465 -- Terms and Conditions 124 Section 466 -- Pilot Program for Sub-Saharan Africa 124 Chapter 8 -- International Narcotics Control 125 Section 481 -- International Narcotics Control 125 Section 482 -- Authorization 138 Section 483 -- Prohibition on Use of Foreign Assistance for Reimbursements for Drug Crop Eradications 141 Section 484 -- Retention of Title to Aircraft 141 Section 485 -- Records of Aircraft Use 141 Section 486 -- Reallocation of Funds Withheld from Countries Which Fail to Take Adequate Steps to Halt Illicit Drug Production or Trafficking 142 Section 487 -- Prohibition on Assistance to Drug Traffickers 142 Section 488 -- Prohibition on Use of Narcotics Control Assistance to Acquire Real Property 14? Section 489 -- Permissible Uses of Aircraft and Other Equipment 14? Chapter 9 -- International Disaster Assistance 14? Section 491 -- Policy and General Authority 14? Section 492 -- Authorization 14? Section 493 -- Disaster Assistance -- Coordination 14? Section 494 -- Disaster Relief Assistance 14? Section 495 -- Cyprus Relief and Rehabilitation 14? Section 495B -- Italy Relief and Rehabilitation 14? Section 495C -- Lebanon Relief and Rehabilitation 14? Section 495D -- Romanian Relief and Rehabilitation 14? Section 495E -- Turkey, Relief, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction 14? Section 495F -- African Rehabilitation and Resettlement 14? Section 495G -- Special Caribbean Hurricane Relief Assistance 14? Section 495H -- Cambodian Disaster Relief Assistance 14? Section 495I -- Assistance for Displaced Persons in Central America 15? Section 495J -- Lebanon Emergency Relief, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction Assistance 15? Section 495K -- African Famine Assistance 15? 1.4.2 Annex I: Part II Part II: Chapter 1 -- Policy 153 Section 501 -- Statement of Policy 153 Section 502 -- Utilization of Defense Articles and Services 154 Section 502A -- Excess Defense Articles 154 Section 502B -- Human Rights 155 Chapter 2 -- Military Assistance 159 Section 503 -- General Authority 159 Section 504 -- Authorization 160 Section 505 -- Conditions of Eligibility 161 Section 506 -- Special Authority 166 Section 511 -- Considerations in Furnishing Military Assistance 167 Section 514 -- Stockpiling of Defense Articles for Foreign Countries 167 Section 515 -- Overseas Management of Assistance and Sales Programs 169 Section 516 -- Modernization of Defense Capabilities of Countries of NATO's Southern Flank 170 Section 517 -- Modernization of Military Capabilities of Certain Major Illicit Drug Producing Countries 171 Chapter 3 -- Foreign Military Sales 173 Section 524 -- Reimbursements 173 Chapter 4-- Economic Support Fund 174 Section 531 -- Authority 175 Section 532 -- Authorization of Appropriations 175 Section 533 -- Emergency Assistance 178 Section 534 -- Administration of Justice 178 Section 535 -- Economic Support for Disadvantaged South Africans 179 Chapter 5 -- International Military Education and Training 180 Section 541 -- General Authority 180 Section 542 -- Authorization 180 Section 543 -- Purposes 180 Section 544 -- Exchange Training 181 Section 545 -- Training in Maritime Skills 181 Chapter 6 -- Peacekeeping Operations 181 Section 551 -- General Authority 181 Section 552 -- Authorization of Appropriations 182 Section 553 -- Administrative Authorities 183 Chapter 7 -- Air Base Construction in Israel 183 Section 561 -- General Authority 183 Section 562 -- Authorization and Utilization of Funds 183 Section 563 -- Waiver Authorities 184 Chapter 8 -- Anti-terrorism Assistance 184 Section 571 -- General Authority 184 Section 572 -- Purposes 184 Section 573 -- Specific Authorities and Limitations 184 Section 574 -- Reports to Congress 186 Section 575 -- Authorizations of Appropriations 187 Section 576 -- Administrative Authorities 187 1.4.3 Annex I: Part III Part III: Chapter 1 -- General Provisions 187 Section 601 -- Encouragement of Free Enterprise and Private Participation 187 Section 602 -- Small Business 190 Section 603 -- Shipping on United States Vessels 191 Section 604 -- Procurement 191 Section 605 -- Retention and Use of Certain Items and Funds 192 Section 606 -- Patents and Technical Information 193 Section 607 -- Furnishing of Services and Commodities 194 Section 608 -- Advance Acquisition of Property 196 Section 609 -- Special Account 197 Section 610 -- Transfer Between Accounts 198 Section 611 -- Completion of Plans and Cost Estimates 198 Section 612 -- Use of Foreign Currencies 199 Section 613 -- Accounting, Valuation, Reporting, and Administration of Foreign Currencies 201 Section 614 -- Special Authorities 202 Section 615 -- Contract Authority 204 Section 616 -- Availability of Funds 204 Section 617 -- Termination of Assistance 204 Section 620 -- Prohibitions Against Furnishing Assistance 204 Section 620A -- Prohibition on Assistance to Governments Supporting International Terrorism 213 Section 620C -- United States Policy Regarding the Eastern Mediterranean 215 Section 620D -- Prohibition on Assistance to Afghanistan 217 Section 620E -- Assistance to Pakistan 218 Chapter 2 -- Administrative Provisions 219 Section 621 -- Exercise of Functions 219 Section 621A -- Strengthened Management Practices 220 Section 622 -- Coordination With Foreign Policy 220 Section 623 -- The Secretary of Defense 221 Section 624 -- Statutory Officers 221 Section 625 -- Employment of Personnel 223 Section 626 -- Experts, Consultants, and Retired Officers 225 Section 627 -- Detail of Personnel to Foreign Governments 226 Section 628 -- Detail of Personnel to International Organizations 226 Section 629 -- Status of personnel Detailed 226 Section 630 -- Terms of Detail or Assignment 227 Section 631 -- Missions and Staffs Abroad 228 Section 632 -- Allocation and Reimbursement Among Agencies 228 Section 633 -- Waivers of Certain Laws 230 Section 633A -- Furnishing Information 231 Section 634 -- Annual Report 231 Section 634A -- Notification of Program Changes 234 Section 634B -- Classification of Reports 235 Section 635 -- General Authorities 235 Section 636 -- Provisions on Uses of Funds 237 Section 637 -- Administrative Expenses 241 Section 638 -- Exclusions 242 Section 640A -- False Claims and Ineligible Commodities 242 Section 640B -- Coordination 243 Section 640C -- Shipping Differential 244 Chapter 3 -- Miscellaneous Provisions 245 Section 641 -- Effective Date and Identification of Programs 245 Section 642 -- Statutes Repealed 245 Section 643 -- Saving Provisions 245 Section 644 -- Definitions 246 Section 645 -- Unexpended Balances 248 Section 646 -- Construction 249 Section 647 -- Dependable Fuel Supply 249 Section 648 -- Special Authorization for Use of Foreign Currencies 249 Section 650 -- Use of United States Armed Forces 249 Section 652 -- Limitation Upon Exercise of Special Authorities 250 Section 653 -- Change in Allocation of Foreign Assistance 250 Section 654 -- Presidential Findings and Determinations 251 Section 660 -- Prohibiting Police Training 252 Section 661 -- Trade and Development Program 254 Section 662 -- Limitation on Intelligence Activities 255 Section 663 -- Exchanges of Certain Materials 256 Section 666 -- Discrimination Against United States Personnel 256 Section 667 -- Operating Expenses 257 Section 669 -- Nuclear Enrichment Transfers 258 Section 670 -- Nuclear Reprocessing Transfers, Illegal Exports for Nuclear Explosive Devices, Transfers of Nuclear Explosive Devices, and Nuclear Detonations 259 b. Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629) 263 c. Overseas Private Investment Corporation Amendments Act of 1988 (Public Law 100-461) (partial text) 332 d. Special Foreign Assistance Act of 1986 (Public Law 99- 529) (partial text) 334 e. Anglo-Irish Agreement Support Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-415) (partial text) 340 f. International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-83) (partial text) 343 Section 1. Short Title and Table of Contents 343 Title I -- Military Assistance and Sales and Related Programs 343 Section 101. Foreign Military Sales Credits 343 Section 106. Guaranty Reserve Fund 345 Section 129. Conventional Arms Transfers 345 Section 130. Foreign Military Sales for Jordan 346 Section 131. Certification Concerning AWACS Sold to Saudi Arabia 347 Section 132. Cooperative Agreements on Air Defense in Central Europe 348 Title II -- Economic Support Fund 350 Section 202. Assistance for the Middle East 350 Section 203. Assistance for Cyprus 351 Section 204. Assistance for Portugal 352 Section 205. Acquisition of Agricultural Commodities Under Commodity Import Programs 352 Section 206. Tied Aid Credit Program 352 Section 207. Restriction on Use of Funds for Nuclear Facilities 352 Section 208. Fiscal Year 1985 Supplemental Authorization 353 Title III -- Development Assistance 353 Section 305. Promotion of Immunization and Oral Rehydration 353 Section 311. Use of Private and Voluntary Organizations, Cooperatives, and the Private Sector 353 Section 315. Minority Set-Aside 353 Title IV -- Other Foreign Assistance Programs 354 Section 402. Voluntary Contributions to International Organizations and Programs 354 Title V -- International Terrorism and Foreign Airport Security 354 Part A -- International Terrorism Generally Section 502. Coordination of All United States Anti- Terrorism Assistance to Foreign Countries 354 Section 504. Prohibition on Imports From and Exports to Libya 355 Section 505. Ban on Importing Goods and Services from Countries Supporting Terrorism 355 Section 506. International Anti-Terrorism Committee 356 Section 507. International Terrorism Control Treaty 356 Section 508. State Terrorism 356 Part B -- Foreign Airport Security Section 551. Security Standards for Foreign Air Transportation 356 Section 552. Travel Advisory and Suspension of Foreign Assistance 360 Section 553. United States Airmarshal Program 360 Section 554. Enforcement of International Civil Aviation Organization Standards 361 Section 555. International Civil Aviation Boycott of Countries Supporting International Terrorism 361 Section 556. Multilateral and Bilateral Agreements with Respect to Aircraft Sabotage, Aircraft Hijacking, and Airport Security 361 Section 557. Research on Airport Security Techniques for Detecting Explosives 361 Section 558. Hijacking of TWA Flight 847 and Other Acts of Terrorism 361 Section 559. Effective Date 362 Title VI -- International Narcotics Control 362 Section 607. Procurement of Weapons to Defend Aircraft Involved in Narcotics Control Efforts 362 Section 610. Assistance for Jamaica 362 Section 611. Assistance for Bolivia 362 Section 612. Assistance for Peru 364 Section 613. Reallocation of Funds if Conditions Not Met 364 Section 615. Latin American Regional Narcotics Control Organization 364 Section 616. Greater Effort by United States Armed Forces to Support Narcotics Control Efforts Abroad 365 Section 617. Cuban Drug Trafficking 365 Section 619. Drug Trafficking and the Problem of Total Confidentiality of Certain Foreign Bank Accounts 366 Title VII -- Western Hemisphere 367 Section 702. El Salvador 367 Section 703. Assistance for Guatemala 369 Section 704. Refugees in Honduras 371 Section 705. Promoting the Development of the Haitian People and Providing for Orderly Emigration for Haiti 372 Section 706. Military Assistance for Paraguay 373 Section 707. Assistance for Peru 373 Section 709. Comprehensive Reports on Assistance for Latin America and the Caribbean 374 Section 710. Use of Private and Voluntary Organizations 374 Section 713. Use of Employee Stock Ownership Plans in Development Efforts 374 Section 714. International Advisory Commission for the Caribbean Region 375 Section 716. Rural Electrification 377 Section 717. Facilitating International Commerce Through Mexico 377 Section 718. Condemning Human Rights Violations and the Subversion of Other Governments by the Government of Cuba 377 Section 719. Reports on Foreign Debt in Latin America 378 Section 720. Economic Assistance for Uruguay 378 Section 721. Canadian Exports to the United States 378 Section 722. Nicaragua 379 Title VIII -- Africa 380 Section 801. Balance-of-Payments Support for Countries in Africa 389 Section 802. Economic Support Assistance for Southern Africa 390 Section 803. Policy Toward South African "Homelands" 391 Section 804. Assistance for Zaire 392 Section 805. Assistance for Tunisia 392 Section 806. Political Settlement in Sudan 393 Section 807. Elections in Liberia 393 Section 808. Western Sahara 393 Section 812. Failure of Ethiopian Government to Responsibly Ameliorate Famine Conditions 394 Section 813. Assistance for People's Republic of Mozambique 395 Title IX -- Asia 396 Section 901. The Philippines 396 Section 903. Disadvantaged Children in Asia 398 Section 904. Assistance for Afghanistan 398 Section 905. Assistance for the Cambodian People 398 Section 906. Prohibition on Certain Assistance for the Khmer Rouge 398 Section 907. Political Settlement in Sri Lanka 399 Section 908. United States Policy Toward the Republic of Korea 399 Title X -- Food and Agricultural Assistance 400 Section 1008. Long-Term Agricultural Commodity Agreements with Food Deficit Countries 400 Title XI -- Peace Corps 400 Section 1103. Limitation on Length of Peace Corps Employment 400 Section 1104. Peace Corps National Advisory Council 400 Title XII -- Miscellaneous Provisions Relating to Foreign Assistance 400 Section 1205. Reports on Economic Conditions in Certain Countries 400 Section 1206. Egyptian-Israeli Relations 401 Section 1210. Report on United States Assistance to Coal Exporting Nations 401 Title XIII -- Miscellaneous Provisions 401 Section 1301. Effective Date 401 Section 1302. Codification of Policy Prohibiting Negotiations with the Palestine Liberation Organization 401 Section 1303. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad 402 Section 1304. Federal Coal Export Commission 404 g. Jordan Supplemental Economic Assistance Authorization Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-88) (partial text) 406 h. African Famine Relief and Recovery Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-8) (partial text) 408 i. International Security and Development: Assistance Authorizations Act of 1983 (Public Law 98-151) (partial text) 411 j. Lebanon Emergency Assistance Act of 1983 (Public Law 98-43) 415 k. International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1981 (Public Law 97-113) (partial text) 417 Section 1 -- Short Title 417 Title I -- Military Sales and Related Programs 417 Section 108 -- Special Defense Acquisition Fund 417 Title II -- Economic Support Fund 418 Section 203 -- Acquisition of Agricultural Commodities and Related Products Under Commodity Import Programs 418 Title III -- Development Assistance 418 Section 301 -- Agricultural, Rural Development, and Nutrition 418 Title IV -- Food for Peace Programs 419 Section 403 -- Self-Help Measures to Increase Agricultural Production; Verification of Self- Help Provisions 419 Title V -- Other Assistance Programs 419 Section 502 -- International Narcotics Control 419 Title VI -- Peace Corps 419 Section 601 -- Establishment as an Independent Agency 419 Section 604 -- Restoration of Certain Authorities Formerly Contained in the Foreign Service Act 419 Title VII -- Miscellaneous Provisions 420 Section 705 -- Inspector General 420 Section 708 -- Emergency Humanitarian Help for the People of Poland 420 Section 709 -- Use of Certain Polish Currencies 420 Section 710 -- Findings Regarding Global Security 421 Section 711 -- World Food Security Reserves 421 Section 712 -- Findings and Declaration of Policy Regarding World Hunger 422 Section 713 -- Reaffirmation of Support for Human Rights Provisions 422 Section 714 -- Immigrant Visas for Taiwan 422 Section 715 -- Lebanon 422 Section 716 -- Use of Chemical and Toxic Weapons 423 Section 717 -- Financial Obligations of the Soviet Union to the United Nations 423 Section 718 -- Condemnation of Libya for its Support of International Terrorist Movements 424 Section 719 -- United States Citizens Acting in the Service of International Terrorism 424 Section 720 -- Nonaligned Countries 425 Section 721 -- Promoting the Development of the Haitian People and Providing for Orderly Emigration from Haiti 425 Section 722 -- Comprehensive Analysis of Foreign Assistance 426 Section 723 -- External Debt Burdens of Egypt, Israel, and Turkey 427 Section 724 -- Nicaragua 427 Section 726 -- Repeal of Limitations on Assistance, Sales and Sales Credits for Chile 428 Section 727 -- Assistance for El Salvador 429 Section 728 -- Restrictions on Military Assistance and Sales to El Salvador 430 Section 729 -- Reporting Requirement Relating to El Salvador 432 Section 730 -- Restrictions on Aid to El Salvador 432 Section 731 -- El Salvadoran Refugees 432 Section 734 -- Repeals 433 Section 735 -- Report on Nuclear Activities 433 Section 737 -- Prohibitions Relating to Nuclear Transfers and Nuclear Detonations 433 l. International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1980 (Public Law 96-533) (partial text) 434 Section 1 -- Short Title 434 Title I -- Military and Related Assistance and Sales Programs 434 Section 106 -- Foreign Military Sales Authorization and Aggregate Ceiling 434 Section 110 -- Exportation of Uranium Depleted in the Isotope 235 435 Section 119 -- Prohibition on Military Assistance to Nicaragua 436 Title III -- Development Assistance Programs 436 Section 313 -- Assistance to the Eastern Caribbean 436 Section 314 -- Assistance for Equatorial Guinea 436 Section 315 -- Caribbean Development Bank 436 Section 316 -- World Hunger 436 Section 317 -- Reduction of Postharvest Losses of Food 437 Title IV -- Other Assistance Programs 437 Section 402 -- International Narcotics Control 437 Section 408 -- East Timor 437 Title V -- African Development Foundation 438 Section 501 -- Short Title 438 Section 502 -- Findings 438 Section 503 -- Establishment 438 Section 504 -- Purposes 439 Section 505 -- Functions 439 Section 506 -- Powers 440 Section 507 -- Management 441 Section 508 -- Government Corporation Control Act 442 Section 509 -- Limitations on Spending Authority 442 Section 510 -- Authorization of Appropriations 442 Title VII -- Miscellaneous Provisions 443 Section 710 -- Interagency Group on Human Rights and Foreign Assistance 443 Section 711 -- Peace in the Middle East 443 Section 712 -- Assistance for Jordan 444 Section 715 -- Cuban Refugees 444 Section 716 -- Incarceration and Deportation of Certain Cubans 445 Section 717 -- Prohibition on Assistance to the Governments of Cuba, Vietnam, and Cambodia 445 Section 718 -- Cooperation of Other Governments in the Boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow 445 Section 719 -- Elections in Uganda 446 m. International Development Cooperation Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-53) (partial text) 447 Section 1 -- Short Title 447 Title I -- Development Assistance 447 Section 114 -- International Organizations and Programs 447 Section 125 -- Assistance to Latin American and Caribbean Countries 448 Section 126 -- Increased Contributions for Development Assistance 448 Title IV -- Institute for Scientific and Technological Cooperation 448 Section 401 -- Statement of Policy 448 Section 402 -- Purposes and Establishment of the Institute 449 Section 403 -- Functions of the Institute 449 Section 404 -- General Authorities 450 Section 405 -- Director of the Institute 451 Section 406 -- Deputy Director and Other Statutory Officers 451 Section 407 -- Council on International Scientific and Technological Cooperation 451 Section 408 -- Institute Fellowships 453 Section 409 -- Conflict of Interest 454 Section 410 -- Authorization of Appropriations 454 Section 412 -- Conforming Amendments 454 Section 413 -- Establishment in International Development Cooperation Agency 455 Section 414 -- Expiration of Authorities 455 Title V -- Miscellaneous Provisions 455 Section 501 -- Earmarking for Lebanon of Unobligated Balances in the Middle East Special Requirements Fund 455 Section 502 -- Military Assistance to Sudan 455 Section 507 -- Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons 456 Section 509 -- Refugee Crisis in Southeast Asia 456 Section 510 -- Certain Travel Expenses 457 Section 512 -- Effective Dates 457 n. International Security Assistance Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-92) (partial text) 458 Section 1 -- Short Title 458 Section 17 -- Authorization and Aggregate Ceiling for Foreign Military Sales Credits 458 Section 23 -- Transfer of War Reserve Material and Other Property to Taiwan 459 Section 24 -- Ammunition Sold to Thailand 459 Section 26 -- Shaba Airlift 459 Section 27 -- Fiscal Year 1979 Supplemental Authorization for Turkey 460 o. Special International Security Assistance Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-35) (partial text) 461 Section 1 -- Short Title 461 Section 2 -- Statement of Policy and Findings 461 Section 4 -- Supplemental Authorization of Foreign Military Sales Loan Guaranties for Egypt and Israel 462 Section 5 -- Supplemental Authorization of Economic Support for Egypt 462 Section 6 -- Transfer of Facilities of the Sinai Field Mission to Egypt 463 Section 7 -- Contributions by Other Countries to Support Peace in the Middle East 463 Section 8 -- Planning for Trilateral Scientific and Technological Cooperation by Egypt, Israel, and the United States 463 Section 10 -- Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 464 p. International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-424) (partial text) 465 Section 1 -- Short Title 465 Title I -- Development Assistance 465 Section 117 -- International Organizations and Programs 465 Section 120 -- Locust Plagues Control in Africa 466 Section 122 -- African Development Foundation 466 Title III -- Coordination and Administration of the Development-Related Programs and Policies of the United States 466 Section 301 -- Declaration of Objectives 466 Section 302 -- Implementation of Objectives 467 Title IV -- Unified Personnel System 467 Section 401 -- Establishment of a Unified Personnel System 467 Title VI -- Miscellaneous Provisions 468 Section 601 -- Reduction of Authorization 468 Section 602 -- Prohibition of Assistance to Vietnam, Cambodia, and Cuba 468 Section 603 -- Reports to Congress on Debt Relief Agreements 468 Section 604 -- Miscellaneous Repeals 468 Section 605 -- Effective Date 468 q. International Security Assistance Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-384) (partial text) 469 Section 1 -- Short Title 469 Section 13 -- United States Policy Regarding the Eastern Mediterranean 469 Section 23 -- Special Security Assistance Program for the Modernization of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Korea 470 Section 24 -- United States Relations with the Soviet Union 471 Section 26 -- United States-Republic of China Mutual Defense Treaty 472 Section 28 -- Negotiations Between Israel and Egypt 473 Section 30 -- Savings Provision 474 r. International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-88) (partial text) 475 Section 124 -- Inspector General, Foreign Assistance 475 Section 131 -- Future United States Development Assistance 476 Section 132 -- Limitation on Use of Funds; Missing in Action in Vietnam 476 Section 133 -- Plan for Increased Minority Business Participation in Foreign Assistance Activities 476 Section 215 -- Effective date 478 s. International Security Assistance Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-92) (partial test) 479 Section 1 -- Short title 479 Section 9 -- Security Supporting Assistance Program for Egypt 479 Section 21 -- Fiscal Year Authorizations and Limitations 480 Section 24 -- Study of Technology Transfers 480 Section 26 -- Policy Statement on United States Arms Sales to Israel 481 Section 27 -- Review of Arms Sales Controls on Non-Lethal Items 481 Section 28 -- Republic of Korea 481 Section 29 -- Piaster Conversion 481 t. International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-329) (partial text) 483 Section 106 -- International Military Education and Training 483 Section 201 -- Arms Sales Policy 484 Section 212 -- Control of Licenses with Respect to Arms Exports and Imports 484 Section 405 -- Soviet Intervention in Angola 484 Section 407 -- Control of Military Forces in the Indian Ocean 485 Section 408 -- United States Citizens Imprisoned in Mexico 485 Section 409 -- Emergency Food Needs of Portugal 486 Section 410 -- Strife in Lebanon 486 Section 412 -- Korea 486 Section 413 -- Repeal of Indochina Assistance 486 Section 506 -- Interim Quarter Authorizations 487 Section 601 -- Expedited Procedure in the Senate 488 Section 602 -- Procurements from Small Businesses 489 Section 605 -- Use of Personnel 489 Section 607 -- Extortion and Illegal Payments 490 Section 608 -- Extension of Airport at Pinecreek, Minnesota 490 u. International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1975 (Public Law 94-161) (partial text) 491 Section 320 -- Limitation on Assistance to Chile 491 Section 321 -- Settlement of Debt Owed to the United States 491 Section 322 -- Participation by Other Countries in Providing Assistance to Israel or Egypt 492 v. Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-559) (partial text) 493 Section 28 -- Famine or Disaster Relief 494 Section 47 -- Gorgas Memorial Institute 494 Section 48 -- International Commission of Control and Supervision in Vietnam 495 Section 50 -- Policy on the Independence of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau 495 Section 51 -- Conventional Arms Trade 496 Section 52 -- Involvement of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Development Bank 497 Section 55 -- Policy With Respect to Countries Most Seriously Affected by Food Shortages 497 Section 56 -- Repayment of Loans in Default 498 w. Foreign Assistance Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-189) (partial text) 499 Section 28 -- Asian Development Bank 499 Section 30 -- Termination of Indochina War 499 Section 31 -- Limitation on Use of Funds 499 Section 32 -- Political Prisoners 500 Section 33 -- Albert Schweitzer Hospital 500 Section 34 -- Prisoners of War and Individuals Missing in Action 500 Section 35 -- Rights in Chile 501 Section 36 -- Revision of Social Progress Trust Fund Agreement 501 Section 39 -- World Food Shortages 502 Section 40 -- Use of Local Currencies 503 x. Foreign Assistance Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-226) (partial text) 504 Section 2 -- Food for Peace Program 504 Section 403 -- Position of Under Secretary of State for Coordinating Security Assistance 504 Section 407 -- Periodic Authorizations for State and USIA 505 Section 410 -- Limitation on United Nations Assessment of United States 505 y. Special Foreign Assistance Act of 1971, as amended (Public Law 91-652) (partial text) 506 Section 2 -- Authorization of Appropriations 506 Section 3 -- Transfer of Defense Articles to Korea 506 Section 4 -- Transfer Limitations 507 Section 6 -- Foreign Currencies Held in Pakistan 507 Section 7 -- Limitation on Assistance to Cambodia 507 z. Foreign Military Sales Act Amendments, 1971 (Public Law 91-672) (partial text) 508 aa. Foreign Assistance Act of 1969, as amended (Public 511 Law 91-175) (partial text) 1.4.4 Annex I: Part IV Part IV -- The Inter-American Foundation Act 511 Part V -- Amendments to Other Acts 516 bb. Foreign Assistance Act of 1968 (Public Law 90-554) (partial text) 519 Part V -- Reappraisal of Foreign Assistance Programs 519 cc. Foreign Assistance Act of 1967 (Public Law 90-137) 521 dd. Foreign Assistance Act of 1966 (Public Law 89-583) 522 ee. Foreign Assistance Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-171) 523 ff. Foreign Assistance Act of 1964 (Public Law 88-633) (partial text) 524 Part V -- Religious Persecution 524 gg. Foreign Assistance Act of 1963 (Public Law 88-205) 525 hh. Foreign Assistance Act of 1962 (Public Law 87-565) 526 2. Foreign Assistance Appropriations 527 a. Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1990 (Public Law 101-167) 527 b. Dire Emergency Supplemental Appropriations and Transfers, Urgent Supplementals, and Correcting Enrollment Errors Act of 1989 (Public Law 101-45) (partial text) 608 c. Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1989 (Public Law 100-461) (partial text) 612 d. Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1988 (Public Law 100-202) (partial text) 622 e. Foreign Assistance and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1984 (Deobligation of funds for Syria) (Public Law 98-151) (partial text) 631 f. Title 31, United States Code -- Valid Obligations 633 3. Other Foreign Assistance Related Legislation and Materials 636 a. Security Assistance and Arms Sales Legislation 636 (1) Proposed Arms Sales to Jordan (Public Law 99-162) 636 (2) Conditions on Arms Sales to Turkey (Public Law 94- 104) (partial text) 637 (3) Emergency Security Assistance Act of 1973 (Public Law 93-199) 640 (4) Mutual Security Act of 1959, as amended (Public Law 86-108) (partial text) 642 (5) Mutual Security Act of 1954, as amended (Public Law 83-665) (retained provisions) 643 Section 402 -- Earmarking of Funds 643 Section 408 -- North Atlantic Treaty Organization 643 Section 417 -- Irish Counterpart 644 Section 502 -- Use of Foreign Currency 645 Section 514 -- International Educational Exchange Activities 647 Section 523 -- Coordination With Foreign Policy 647 Section 536 -- Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction in China 647 (6) Notice to Congress of Certain Transfers of Defense Articles and Defense Services (Public Law 80-253) (partial text) 648 b. Development Assistance Legislation 650 (1) Bangladesh Disaster Assistance Act of 1988 (Public Law 100-576) 650 (2) International Cooperation to Protect Biological Diversity (Public Law 100-530) 654 (3) Vessels for Humanitarian Services (Public Law 97-360) 655 (4) Control of Swine Influenza (Public Law 94-302) (partial text) 657 c. Use of Foreign Currencies 658 (1) 31 U.S.C. 1306. Use of Foreign Credits 658 (2) General Government Matters Appropriation Act, 1962 (Public Law 87-125) (partial text) 658 (3) Use of Reserved Coins and Currencies of Foreign Countries (31 U.S.C. 5303) 659 d. Merchant Marine Act of 1936, as amended (sec. 901 -- cargo preference) 660 e. Activities in Nicaragua 669 (1) Survival Assistance to Victims of Civil Strife in Central America (Public Law 101-215) 669 (2) Restriction on Support for Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1990 (Public Law 101-193) (partial text) 670 (3) Assistance for the Nicaraguan Resistance -- Fiscal Year 1990 (Public Law 101-165) (partial text) 671 (4) Assistance for Free and Fair Elections in Nicaragua (Public Law 101-119) 672 (5) Election Monitoring Activities in Nicaragua (Public Law 101-45) (partial text) 674 (6) Bipartisan Accord on Central America of March 24, 1989 (Public Law 101-14) 676 (7) Assistance for the Nicaraguan Resistance -- Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100-463) (partial text) 680 (8) Funds for Promotion of Democracy in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100-461) (partial text) 691 (9) Sense of Congress on Introduction of Armed Forces Into Nicaragua -- Reaffirmation 1989 (Public Law 100-456) (partial text) 693 (10) Restrictions on Support for Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100-453) (partial text) 694 (11) Central American Peace Assistance (Public Law 100-276) 695 (12) Assistance to the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance -- Fiscal Year 1988 (Public Law 100-202) (partial text) 700 (13) Sense of Congress on Introduction of Armed Forces into Nicaragua -- Reaffirmation, 1988 (Public Law 100-180) (partial text) 707 (14) Restrictions on Support for Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1988 (Public Law 100-178) (partial text) 708 (15) Humanitarian Assistance for Central America (Public Law 100-120) (partial text) 709 (16) Restrictions in Use of Certain Defense Appropriations Accounts to Assist the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance -- Fiscal Year 1987 (Public Law 99-661) (partial text) 710 (17) Policy Toward the Government of Nicaragua and the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance (Public Law 99-591) (partial text) 711 (18) Restriction on U.S. Involvement in Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1987 (Public Law 99-591) (partial text) 725 (19) Restrictions on Support for Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1987 (Public Law 99-569) (partial text) 726 (20) Activities in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1986 (Public Law 99-190) (partial text) 727 (21) Restriction on Support for Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1986 (Public Law 99-169) (partial text) 728 (22) Sense of Congress on Introduction of Armed Forces into Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1986 (Public Law 99- 145) (partial text) 729 (23) Humanitarian Assistance for Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance and Assistance for Implementation of Contadora Agreement (Public Law 99-88) (partial text) 730 (24) Congressional Findings, Policy, and Authority for Humanitarian Assistance to Nicaragua (Public Law 99-83) (partial text) 736 (25) Activities in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1985 (Public Law 98-618) (partial text) 747 (26) U.S. Involvement in Military or Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1985 (Public Law 98-473) (partial text) 748 (27) Mining of Nicaraguan Ports (Public Law 98-369) (partial text) 751 (28) Convert Assistance for Military Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal year 1984 (Public Law 98-215) (partial text) 752 (29) U.S. Involvement in Military and Paramilitary Operations in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1984 (Public Law 98-212) (partial text) 754 (30) U.S. Support for Military Activities in Nicaragua -- Fiscal Year 1983 (Public Law 97-377) (partial text) 755 (31) Delegating Authority to Provide Assistance to the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance (Executive Order 12676) 756 (32) Delegating Authority to Implement Assistance to the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance (Executive Order 12654) 757 (33) Delegating Authority to Implement Assistance to the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance (Executive Order 12623) 758 (34) Delegating Authority to Implement Assistance for Central American Democracies and the Nicaraguan Democratic Resistance (Executive Order 12570) 759 (35) Establishment of Nicaraguan Humanitarian Assistance Office (Executive Order 12530) 760 (36) Prohibiting Trade and Certain Other Transactions Involving Nicaragua (Executive Order 12513) 762 f. Foreign Assistance to Latin America 763 (1) Urgent Assistance for Democracy in Panama Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-243) (partial text) 763 (2) Election Observer Mission for the 1989 Presidential Elections in Panama (Public Law 101-9) 767 (3) Latin American Development Act, as amended (Public Law 86-735) 768 g. Assistance to Eastern Europe 771 (1) Assistance to Eastern Europe and Yugoslavia (Public Law 101-243) (partial text) 771 (2) Support for East European Democracy (SEED) Act of 1989 (Public Law 101-179) 772 (3) American Aid to Poland Act of 1988 (Public Law 100- 418) (partial text) 801 (4) Clement J. Zablocki Memorial Outpatient Facility, American Children's Hospital, Krakow, Poland (Public Law 98-266) 803 h. International Narcotics Control 804 (1) International Narcotics Control Act of 1989 (Public Law 101-231) 804 (2) International Narcotics Control Act of 1988 (title IV of Public Law 100-690) 814 (3) International Narcotics Control Act of 1986 (title II of Public Law 99-570) 838 4. Executive Orders, Delegations of Authority, and Reorganization Plans Relating to Foreign Assistance and Arms Exports 848 a. Administration of Foreign Assistance and Related Functions (Executive Order 12163) 848 b. State Department Delegation of Authority No. 145 861 c. International Development Cooperation Agency Delegation of Authority No. 1 866 d. International Development Cooperation Agency Delegation of Authority No. 2 870 e. Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1979 (United States International Development Cooperation Agency) 871 f. Coordination of Economic Policies for Sub-Saharan Africa (Executive Order 12599) 874 g. Inspection of Foreign Assistance Programs (Executive Order 12066) 876 h. Administration of Arms Export Controls (Executive Order 11958) 878 i. Overseas Private Investment Corporation (Executive Order 11579) 882 j. Performance of Functions Authorized by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended (Executive Order 11223) 884 5. Armed Forces Legislation 887 a. Title 10, United States Code 887 b. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1990 and 1991 (Public Law 101-189) (partial text) 916 c. Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 1990 (Public Law 101-165) (partial text) 951 d. Military Construction Appropriations, 1990 (Public Law 101-148) (partial text) 960 e. National Defense Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100-456) (partial text) 961 f. Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 1989 (Public Law 100-463) (partial text) 983 g. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1988 and 1989 (Public Law 100-180) (partial text) 987 h. Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1987 (Public Law 99-661) (partial text) 1013 i. Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1986 (Public Law 99-145) (partial text) 1024 j. Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1985 (Public Law 98-525) (partial text) 1041 k. Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1984 (Public Law 98-94) (partial text) 1060 l. Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1983 (Public Law 97-252) (partial text) 1068 m. Department of Defense Appropriation Authorization Act, 1979 (Public Law 95-485) (partial text) 1071 n. Department of Defense Appropriation Act, 1976 (Public Law 94-212) (partial text) 1072 o. Department of Defense Appropriation Authorization Act, 1975 (Public Law 93-365) (partial text) 1073 p. Armed Forces Appropriation Authorization, 1971 (Public Law 91-441) (partial text) 1077 q. Authorization for an Improved U.S./Soviet Direct Communications Link (Public Law 99-85) 1079 6. Laws Relating to Loan or Sale of Vessels to Foreign Countries 1081 a. Public Law 84-1028 (partial text) 1081 b. Transfer of Naval Ship Dock to Brazil (Public Law 101-172) 1084 c. Transfer of Excess Naval Vessels to the Philippines (Public Law 101-44) 1085 d. Transfer of Certain Naval Vessels (Public Law 97-342) 1086 1.5 Annex 2: Summary Of Congressional Oversight Of U.S. Development Activities SENATE 1. Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry -- Subcommittee on Domestic and Foreign Marketing and Product Promotion 2. Committee on Appropriations -- Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development and Related Agencies -- Subcommittee on Foreign Operations 3. Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs -- Subcommittee on International Finance and Monetary Policy 4. Committee on the Budget 5. Committee on Energy and Natural Resources -- Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development 6. Committee on Environment and Public Works -- Subcommittee on Environmental Protection -- Subcommittee on Hazardous Wastes and Toxic Substances 7. Committee on Finance -- Subcommittee on International Debt -- Subcommittee on International Trade 8. Committee on Foreign Relations -- Subcommittee on African Affairs -- Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs -- Subcommittee on European Affairs -- Subcommittee on International Economic Policy, Trade, Oceans & Environment -- Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs -- Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Communications -- Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere and Peace Corps Affairs 9. Committee on the Judiciary -- Subcommittee on Immigration & Refugee Affairs -- Subcommittee on Patents, Copyrights & Trademarks 10. Committee on Small Business 11. Senate Drug Enforcement Caucus HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 1. Committee on Agriculture -- Subcommittee on Department Operations, Research, and Foreign Agriculture 2. Committee on Appropriations -- Subcommittee on Foreign Operations, Export Financing and Related Programs -- Subcommittee on Rural Development, Agriculture and Related Agencies 3. Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs -- Subcommittee on International Development Institutions and Finance 4. Committee on the Budget -- Defense and International Affairs Task Force -- Economic and Trade Policy Task Force 5. Committee on Energy and Commerce -- Subcommittee on Commerce, Consumer Protection and Competitiveness -- Subcommittee on Health and the Environment 6. Committee on Foreign Affairs -- Subcommittee on Arms Control, International Security and Science -- Subcommittee on Asia and Pacific Affairs -- Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East -- Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations -- Subcommittee on International Economic Policy and Trade -- Subcommittee on International Operations -- Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs 7. Committee on Science, Space & Technology -- Subcommittee on Natural Resources, Agricultural Research and Environment -- Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development -- Subcommittee on Science, Research and Technology -- Subcommittee on International Scientific Cooperation 8. Committee on Small Business 9. Select Committee on Hunger -- International Task Force 10. Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control 2.0 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: ORGANIZATIONAL SKETCHES Susan Raymond This paper was prepared for the October 1990 meeting of the Task Force on Development Organizations of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Government, in New York City. Interactions of the United States with the developing world are scattered throughout the Federal Government. There is no central way to determine how much money is committed by agencies to scientific and technological development work or to relationships within the developing world or specifically within any one country. There are also definitional problems as to when or whether an activity linked to a developing country actually has science and technology (S&T) implications for that country's development, or simply is resident within the country. Satellite tracking stations in developing countries present an example of such a mixed activity. 2.1 Federal Agencies Involved In Foreign Assistance In general, Federal agencies are authorized only to address U.S. domestic problems unless a foreign issue has repercussions on the U.S. domestic scene. The Agency for International Development (USAID) is virtually the only, and is certainly the largest, U.S. Government entity authorized to design and implement programs in developing countries using federal budget monies. Hence, much of the work carried out via federal agencies is actually paid for by USAID. The agencies are, in effect, contractors to USAID via a mechanism called a Participating Agency Service Agreement (PASA). As will be noted in some descriptions, this can amount to significant levels of operational funding for offices or bureaus which, without it, have budgets only for salaries but not for activities. Without the resources from a USAID PASA, such offices lack funding to do any foreign work. In FY 1990, USAID paid other federal government departments and agencies well over $100 Million through PASA arrangements for technical expertise or for program support. This use of federal agencies by USAID has been the subject of some controversy over the years. Section 621A of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1963 states that U.S. Government agencies may be used by USAID only if their expertise is unique or if the task was such that a private sector contractor would not be competitive, and only if the use of the federal agency at issue would not deter the U.S. Government from performing its requisite domestic functions. Policy Directive A76 of the White House Office of Management and Budget (OMB) reinforces this regulation by directing USAID to give clear preference to contracting out tasks rather than utilizing Government agencies. It should be noted that the vast majority of formal S&T agreements between foreign nations and U.S. Government agencies involve Europe, the Soviet Union and high-income Asian nations. Using data from the 1990 S&T and American Diplomacy report arrayed against the World Bank's income categories, one finds that only 4% of U.S. S&T agreements are with low income nations. Less than a quarter are with nations which are AID recipients. Thus, the diplomatic linkages or infrastructure to underpin non- AID S&T relationships with foreign governments appears to be weak. In any event, a brief review of the loci of international activities in Federal agencies may prove instructive. Figure 1 traces the major Federal agencies involved in foreign assistance as well as their relationships. FIGURE 1: FEDERAL AGENCIES INVOLVED IN FOREIGN ASSISTANCE 2.2 Field Operations A development presence in the field is almost totally reserved to the State Department (via USAID), the Department of Commerce (Foreign Commercial Service Officers), the Department of Agriculture (Foreign Agricultural Service Officers), and the Peace Corps.[1] Of these, the Commerce and Agriculture interest is in U.S. trade and U.S. food sales respectively, not in in-country development. Thus, except for Peace Corps volunteers, the only U.S. Government continuous commitment to development is housed in USAID and its foreign missions. 2.3 U.S.-Based Technical Support In general, resources for development programs come to federal agencies from one or more of three sources. Few agencies have specific appropriations to themselves address a problem with foreign roots and therefore to have operations or programs abroad. These are generally in cases where the problem at issue has implications for U.S. domestic status, e.g., AIDS research in Africa by the Centers for Disease Control. Barring use of their own appropriations, agencies rely either on dollar transfers from USAID or on access to local currencies created by food sales from the P.L. 480 program. These latter funds have often been the critical element in transferring U.S. agency S&T expertise abroad (See Chapter 5.0: VAP/VIDX case study in this collection of background papers, and U.S. Department of Agriculture discussion below). The degree of USAID control over programming of these funds has fluctuated over time, but current policy is to require significant USAID input and clearance over local currency use at the field mission level. 2.4 Government Departments DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Although technically barred by legislation from working outside the U.S., the Department of Agriculture is involved in the developing world in three ways. The Foreign Agricultural Service, described above, reports to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and works out of U.S. embassies. Second, the Office of International Cooperation and Development (OICD) of the USDA is the pathway for USAID to access USDA technical experts. The Office itself has no operating budget; it's appropriation covers only the salaries of its 260 staff members (total appropriation is about $5 Million). USAID transfers annually between $10 - $12 Million to OICD for direct technical assistance to the field. OICD staff can also be seconded to USAID. Another $30 Million is transferred through OICD to USDA's International Training Division to handle placement and costs of the training of foreign nationals in U.S. agricultural programs. To allow some organizational predictability at OICD, its operations are financed by a flat budget transfer from USAID each year, and expenditures are drawn down against that transfer. While there are additional points of contact (e.g., the Research Division of USDA), the resources involved are minor. The third way in which USDA interacts with the development process is via the P.L.480 program. The program was created as the safety valve for USDA's domestic price stabilization program, i.e., to allow the purchase of surpluses so as to maintain price stability. The management of P.L.480 purchases of U.S. grain and distribution of that grain to developing countries is carried out via the Development Coordinating Committee (DCC) comprised of representatives of the State Department, USDA, USAID, OMB and the Treasury Department. Disbursement and distribution decisions require a unanimous vote of the DCC. The grain stocks themselves are managed by the Commodity Credit Corporation. P.L.480, then, is not technically part of the USDA, but it is USDA's price support program which triggers the accumulation of grain stocks which, in turn, become development assistance currency. The regular conflicts which arise in the DCC over P.L.480 relate to the differing goals of the member organizations. For example, USDA may want to buy (and DCC may want to ship) grain at a particular point in time that meets the need and schedules of U.S. growers. Yet, that may be the worst time from the point of view of developing country recipients because it may disrupt markets by introducing free supplies at the time of harvest and thus depress prices. USDA goals are U.S. price support; USAID goals are local development. Similarly, the State Department may want grain shipped at a particular point in time or to a particular country for political reasons that bear no relationship either to U.S. price needs or to local market development. Despite the problems, P.L.480 remains a significant part of U.S. development assistance. Figure 2 traces the last twenty years of the program. While tonnage shipped has clearly declined since 1989, the dollar value of that tonnage (and thus the local currency generated for development activities) remains at about $1.3 Billion. FIGURE 2: THE PL480 PROGRAM: THE PAST TWENTY YEARS DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY Treasury is responsible for oversight of the multilateral banks to which U.S. funds are committed. This includes the World Bank, the regional banks (e.g., the Inter-American Development Bank), and the European Development Bank. The Treasury staff for this purposes totals about 20 professionals, linked to five staff for multilateral coordination at USAID and 5 at the State Department. Treasury's role in the multilateral banks has changed over the last ten years. Previously, many of the Treasury staff were actually seconded from the State Department, and the emphasis was on coordination and liaison between Congress and the banks on the implementation of policy issues such as the use of appropriate technology. Since the early 1980s, however, Treasury has come to play a more active role in oversight. Now, only a third of the staff have State/USAID experience. The remainder have a range of financial expertise and review each bank project for its financial integrity and its U.S. market implications. There is now less of a technical link between USAID and Treasury over the technical or development merits of a project, and more independent Treasury assessment. Treasury also serves as an implementing agency for U.S. financial assistance to Eastern Europe. AID funds Treasury projects in financial and banking technical assistance as well as currency stabilization. PEACE CORPS The Peace Corps now fields approximately 5000 volunteers to programs in 47 countries around the world. The emphasis of volunteers is two-fold: training and teaching, and the design and development of model programs to be implemented subsequently by nationals of the host country. Peace Corps program areas are initially specified by the requesting government. As time goes by, however, Peace Corps representatives themselves suggest new program areas to governments which may reflect either changing local conditions or new sets of skills that are being recruited into the Peace Corps itself. The majority of the Peace Corps' work is carried out independently of other federal agencies. There is some cooperation with USAID through a supporting agency agreement. Peace Corps volunteers at times assist in implementing USAID projects by, for example, helping to set up model oral rehydration programs which USAID has funded. In the past, Peace Corps volunteers have also occupied technical positions in USAID's overseas missions, but this practice has been criticized as not in keeping with the intent of the volunteer program and has thus been stopped. Just over 10% of Peace Corps volunteers are engaged in teaching and teacher- training in mathematics and sciences. The vast majority, however, remain engaged in community-level efforts to establish small-scale development projects. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Undoubtedly, the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) is one of the most far-flung departments of the Government and has some of the deepest involvement in international development. There are several points of contact between the DHHS Public Health Service (PHS) and the developing world, but there is no comprehensive data available on how much money or how many personnel are involved in developing country programs. The Office of International Health (OIH) is attached to the Assistant Secretary for Health and is charged with administrative support and coordination of DHHS international activities. These include both USAID- related work and independent roles in such areas as representation at the World Health Organization's General Assembly (DHHS chairs the U.S. delegation) and management of foreign delegations visiting DHHS. OIH currently employs approximately 5 professionals. Although the technical interrelationships between USAID and DHHS agencies such as CDC are direct, the transfers of funds take place via OIH. The Office itself receives direct funds for overhead from USAID for each task carried out. OIH can also carry out PHS field activities in some countries using the Office's access to P.L.480 local currencies. The total amount of money transferred to HHS for purposes of access to DHHS personnel alone in FY 90 was $38 Million in salaries and overhead. This does not include the funds transferred to finance actual project activities carried out by DHHS and its agencies. There are three sets of PASAs between USAID and DHHS technical agencies. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) is widely utilized by USAID for project design work, for field assessments of disease threats, and, in some cases, for actual project implementation. The various Bureaus at USAID draw down against the CDC PASA as needed. Unlike relationships with some Departments (e.g., Department of Transportation), USAID's non-competitive use of CDC is rarely challenged since private firms do not have the level of disease control expertise vested in CDC. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) are less utilized than CDC, but some technical assistance and advice is sought by USAID, especially from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. The institutes, however, also have direct scientific relationships with developing countries and international organizations via research contracts and grants and via visiting scientist programs. Approximately 30% of NIH's scientific staff is comprised of visiting foreign scientists. The role of coordinating these activities and foreign visitors at NIH is vested in its John H. Fogerty International Center which also provides the site for international scientific conferences. In terms of actual budget allocations, only about 1% of the NIH budget is allocated to international activities. This considerably underestimates the level of effort, however, as it does not include time and effort of individual scientists in international collaboration. The newest DHHS entry into the international development arena is the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) which has agreed to a PASA arrangement with the East Europe/Near East (ENE) Bureau of USAID. HCFA will provide a full-time expert for ENE staff, and will assist the Bureau in identifying domestic financing experts whose skills and experiences, especially with reimbursement programs for health services to the disadvantaged, match specific problems in developing countries. The total value of the HCFA PASA is $1.1 Million. Other agencies of DHHS (e.g., the Food and Drug Administration) periodically are drawn into international development work through the central HHS PASA, but are less frequently called upon. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Interior has two subdivisions with a history of development involvement. A minor role has been played by the National Park Service in providing technical assistance (largely USAID financed) for natural resources and endangered species management. The major player has been the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) whose three divisions all have international operations. The Water Resources Division has an international program which provides three types of services. Short-term temporary technical assistance is provided for groundwater evaluations, water resources inventories and the like. These services are provided on a reimbursed basis, and clients include USAID, United Nations agencies, OAS and the World Bank. Long-term technical assistance is provided on rare occasions, also on a reimbursed basis. For example, the USGS has provided long-term technicians to governments for groundwater evaluation, and is reimbursed directly by the client government. (These activities often are hotly contested by U.S. firms who wish to provide the same services.) Third, the Division is actively involved in training foreign nationals in the U.S. and in their home countries. The Geological Division of the USGS has similar international programs in mineral resources exploration, seismology and natural hazards assessment. The Mapping Division provides fee-reimbursed services internationally in areas related to remote sensing and cartographics. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION The locus of developing country work in the Department of Transportation (DOT) is the Office of International Transportation and Trade which works with USAID in all aspects of transportation infrastructure. In addition, the Federal Highway Administration is involved in short- and long-term technical assistance in development programs, albeit to a much lesser degree than was the case prior to the shift of U.S. programs to basic human needs. Currently, the DOT has bilateral S&T arrangements with 24 countries and participates in 15 international organizations. In terms of diplomatic arrangements, the DOT is second only to the Geological Survey in the numbers of relationships with the poor and middle income countries. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR The International Bureau of the Department of Labor has three offices. The Office of International Organizations provides U.S. representation to the ILO and to the Manpower and Social Affairs Committee of the OECD. The Office of International Economic Affairs conducts analyses of the U.S. labor impact of international trade and economic development. It also participates in U.S. trade negotiations. It is the Office of Foreign Relations which links more frequently to development assistance, however. It operates in five ways. First, it tracks labor information and data via the Labor Attaches in U.S. embassies abroad, and thus has a field presence in some countries. Second, it provides technical assistance to developing countries on both labor and training problems. Currently, for example, all assistance to East Europe in preparing unemployment programs and data systems is being handled by the U.S. Department of Labor with USAID funding. In addition to these first two functions, the Office operates an exchange program of research and training with industrialized countries, runs a visitors program for foreign labor officials, and is responsible for case investigation of complaints about workers rights in foreign countries. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE While there are many sections of the Department of Commerce which collect and analyze data regarding foreign markets, the Foreign Commercial Service (FCS) is the exclusive presence of the Department in the field. The FCS has as its focus the expansion of U.S. exports; it is only peripherally interested in U.S. investment abroad or in business development within the host country. The service sees its primary function as counseling U.S. businesses in the U.S. on entering the export market. It provides a series of services, reports, and conferences/trips to encourage U.S. business in these directions. The Department of Commerce also provides technical information to developing countries via the Bureau of Standards, the Bureau of the Census, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Experts from these agencies are also frequently sent by USAID to provide technical assistance to developing countries governments. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY The Office of International Affairs of the Department of Energy (DOE) coordinates all DOE work abroad. The Department is actively involved in a number of project activities via cooperation with USAID in the developing world. In Thailand, DOE, together with the Department of Commerce, the Trade Development Program and USAID, is evaluating the potential for promotion of advanced coal technology to promote both Thai development and U.S. technology exports. Similarly, in Poland and Hungary, DOE is involved in the application of clean-coal technology to local coal-fired power plants and in developing the capability for local manufacture of environmental protection equipment. 2.5 Independent Agencies ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY Over the last year, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has expanded its international involvement and expanded its international staff from 27 to 60 persons. International activities are organized into three divisions: (1) Program Operations, which provides management and logistical support, including management of the international visitors program; (2) International Cooperation, which staffs all multilateral and bilateral collaboration (e.g., with the United Nations, the World Bank, etc.); and (3) International Issues, which develops technical strategies for addressing such inter-nation problems as ozone depletion, climate change, and agricultural commodities trade from countries using pesticides banned in the U.S. This division also carries out experimental field projects. For example, it has joined with USAID in Central America to develop mechanisms to ensure that agricultural produce shipped to market conforms with U.S. pesticide standards, thereby expanding opportunities for trade. EPA's foreign operations budget is less than $100 Million, mostly allocated to the provision of technical assistance. Until very recently, all staff were located in Washington. EPA's role as lead agency in the extensive U.S.- Mexico City pollution control agreement has now led to the placement of an EPA staff member in the U.S. Embassy in Mexico City, reporting to the science attache. TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM The Trade and Development Program (TDP) was created to promote economic development in developing countries by funding or financing feasibility studies or other services which lead to the export of U.S. goods and services. TDP seeks to assist U.S. firms in meeting competition from companies in other developed countries which have similar programs of trade promotion and finance. TDP financing has been especially concentrated in technology-based industries and products, especially telecommunications, information processing, power, and mass transit. The annual budget for TDP is approximately $25 Million. Since its creation in 1980, TDP has financed the planning of 480 projects in 91 countries, with a potential for generating $7 Billion in U.S. exports. EXPORT-IMPORT BANK The Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im) is an independent government agency responsible for facilitating export financing for U.S. goods and services. Ex-Im uses three mechanisms to carry out its role. Annually it has a $100 Billion export financing guarantee authority, i.e., to guarantee private financing using the faith and credit of the U.S. Government. It normally uses about $40 Billion of this authority in any given year. Second, it provides subsidized export credits to U.S. from total funds of $700 Million for this purpose. Third, and most recently, it controls a $100 Million "war chest" of grant funding for what are referred to as "mixed credits" for U.S. companies. These funds are to be used to provide soft loans (below market rates, grace periods, lengthy terms) to U.S. companies competing with companies of other nations for export markets when the latter companies are similarly subsidized. OVERSEAS PRIVATE INVESTMENT CORPORATION The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) was originally part of USAID, with separate operations only since 1971. OPIC provides insurance against political risks for U.S. private direct investors in over 100 developing countries, and also provides financing for investment projects. These latter financial credits are targeted at small- and medium-sized U.S. businesses, which OPIC defines as any business not in the Fortune 1000 (implying annual sales of less than $1S0 million). OPIC annually provides over $8 Billion in insurance and $230 Million in directly financed projects. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION The National Science Foundation (NSF) has a number of international linkages and programs, notably with Japan, Brazil, Mexico and Europe. It also operates a wide range of global programs, especially with regard to the environment. In recent years, its relationship to developing country science or to USAID's S&T programs have been more limited. When USAID was created, NSF was a major part of USAID programming for the development of science, technology and engineering training programs in universities in the developing world. Most of these programs were carried out in countries which were at the higher end of the economic development spectrum (e.g., Costa Rica and India). As USAID's emphasis changed in the 1970s to emphasize basic needs, country emphasis also shifted, toward the poorest of the developing world. Developing scientific departments of universities, expanding science research, and like activities fell out of programming favor, as did the countries in which such activities were likely to take place. As a consequence, NSF's role in USAID programming declined. Currently, NSF has only a small PASA with USAID, specifically to create review panels upon request to provide advice on S&T projects. Since 1968, however, NSF has also had its own internal international budget (currently about $13 Million) to pursue programs which abroad which are of benefit to U.S. science. This amount (0.6% of the total NSF budget) underestimates the NSF international role, however. Many NSF divisions have international linkages, by financing the work or research of U.S. scientists carried out in foreign sites. It is only the International Division, however, whose international S&T programs are focused on active collaboration to benefit both foreign and domestic science partners. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has over 1000 agreements with more than 100 countries covering a broad spectrum of cooperation, research, and data-sharing. Perhaps of most importance for developing countries is access to NASA's satellite images for purposes of agricultural, water and environmental development. These data are regularly made available to governments and international and bilateral organizations such as the World Bank. Endnote [1] The U.S. Public Health Service has only one attache remaining abroad, posted in India. 3.0 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AT THE U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Susan Raymond This paper was prepared for the workshop on "International Development: Organizing to Harness the Potential of the Science and Technology Community," held at The Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia, 29-30 October 1989. Undeniably, progress in science and its application in technological innovation have generated a cascade of economic, social and political changes -- most good, some arguably not -- which have shaped today's world. But the innovations of science and technology have not, and do not, reach accomplishment in isolation. The history of progress is one of linkages. The effects of technological breakthroughs are enabled by other changes. Smallpox vaccines could reach those in need because of roads, communications and 4-wheel drive; the Green Revolution could succeed because of land reform; babies live longer if mothers have a primary school education, irrespective of technology. Half of the improvement in life expectancy over the past 25 years is attributable to economic growth, and the other half to technological innovation. In the future, sustaining or improving past progress in development will depend upon better technological innovation and its application to increasingly difficult problems. But, of utmost importance will be the link between that potential for innovation and the context (political, social, economic, educational) into which it is being placed. For a donor agency, "science and technology" are not end-points; rather, they are crucial parts of the armaments available for addressing the problems of development. But even these are only parts within a whole. Science and technology must be carefully managed and applied, always with an eye toward maximizing the linkage to the barriers and opportunities of associated sectors in the developing world itself. Donor agencies in general, and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in particular, face a future filled with choices. Times are indeed changing; donors now struggle with how to change as well. There is great diversity among developing nations in terms of the speed and trajectory of their economic and social progress. Consequently, there is great diversity among and within nations in the development problems they face. The range of this diversity requires a more complex and flexible response from donors in their development programs. But donor money is limited, increasingly limited in the case of USAID. There are large opportunity costs to any choice about how to spend that money. This is particularly true when choosing within such diversity and complexity. Science and technology applications and choices are part of this pattern of change and choice. Science and technology (S&T) programs are a major part of USAID's development strategy. This paper is intended to begin to put data substance around the organizational and decision-making questions intended to be addressed by this meeting. How is S&T handled at USAID? What is the status of S&T human resources in USAID? What do we know about the successes of the past? How are future choices made? This paper will not attempt to provide final answers to those questions. It is a beginning not an end. It attempts to provide some of the parameters of the development choices facing USAID, the S&T dimensions of those choices, and the problems within the internal nature and organization of science and technology (and, importantly, within USAID itself) which may impede effective future S&T flexibility in contributing to development. This paper will address three areas of concern regarding S&T at the United States Agency for International Development: people, process and performance. Source documents are noted in the text and a source list is appended. Other information is from original data or personal interviews. 3.1 People Most fundamentally, the vibrancy, creativeness, and flexibility of an organization rest with its people. People are the vectors of change. Looking within USAID, how is science and technology organized and staffed, and what weaknesses or strengths does this imply for the pursuit of S&T programs in the future? 3.2 Summary Available data suggest five central trends in S&T staffing in USAID, many of which hint at potential future problems: 1. There is a hollowing out of USAID's staff, as the proportion of technical staff declines due either to attrition or to movement to executive, non-line positions in search of promotions. 2. There is a greying of existing staff as fresh recruitment declines. 3. Contractors are assuming USAID staff roles, often actually working in staff positions, with resultant impact on the origins of projects and policies. Technical staff increasingly play the role of contract managers. 4. Staff expertise has had difficulty keeping pace with changing development priorities and issues. 5. Many of these trends reflect a weakness in manpower planning at USAID. 3.3 Organization Of Science And Technology At AID An organizational chart for the United States Agency for International Development is provided in Figure 1. Science and technology at USAID are pursued at five organizational levels. FIGURE 1: UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: ORGANIZATIONAL CHART First, The Bureau for Science and Technology is intended to be the repository of technical expertise in the Agency, and to pursue projects and programs which cross geographic and sectoral boundaries. (The position of Senior Assistant Administrator for Science and Technology is now vacant.) The Bureau contains a separate office for research and university relations, which oversees and coordinates science and technology programs with the academic community. Organizational experts have commented on the need for reorganization of the S&T Bureau. The official organization chart does not accurately detail the complexity of the Bureau. For example, the Population Directorate, shown on the chart as a single unit, is actually split into five divisions; Rural Development has four divisions, and so on. In all, the Bureau has 43 separate units, several having only one or two positions. Taking the average, each unit consists of only 4.2 substantive positions. More than 40 percent of the division-level units within the Bureau fall below the civil service minimum size requirements set by the Office of Personnel Management. (Morss/1989; RAMPS Special Report/1989) The burgeoning of small units all tied into a central manager has impeded cross-sectoral S&T planning, communications and clear lines of authority. Second, three free-standing offices have S&T involvement, but report directly to the Administrator rather than through the Senior Assistant Administrator for Science and Technology. The Office of the Science Advisor is designed to handle major science research and to provide a link to the science community, for example, to the National Academy of Sciences. The Research Advisory Committee, a group of external experts, reviews all centrally funded research proposals. The Board for International Food and Agricultural Development (BIFAD) provides a link between the Agency and the land grant universities for purposes of agricultural policy, program design and research. Third, the Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination (PPC) is responsible for policy development. It is, in part, organized by sectors, and S&T sectors have oversight personnel located in PPC. Fourth, the Regional Bureaus (Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia/Near East, and Africa) each have technical S&T staff in charge of project development and project management. Finally, the 70 USAID missions in the field are staffed in part by technical USAID personnel appropriate to the sectoral mix of the projects supported by the particular mission. 3.4 Caveats On Data Analysis Two serious caveats should be noted prior to discussing staffing trends. Both have to do with overall management at USAID, but each seriously affects the reliability of any information about USAID's S&T capabilities or activities. 1. Staffing Levels It is estimated that the total work force of USAID is between 12,000 and 18,000 persons. (Source: Personal interviews; estimates based on aggregation of WP490/1 reporting forms from missions.) Of these, approximately 4700 are direct hire U.S. Government Service or Foreign Service officers, 3200 of which are full time employees in permanent positions. (Source: Revised Automated Manpower and Personnel (RAMPS) data, 1989; includes International Development Interns.) The remainder are either Foreign Service Nationals ("FSNs", citizens of the recipient country working in the USAID mission in staff positions) or contract personnel. In 1988, the total FSN contingent was just over 1000 persons, so the vast majority of the unaccounted for work force is on contract. These are individuals hired by USAID under contract (in the field or in Washington) to carry out staff-level activities within USAID's own operation. This does not include contract personnel (approximately 1000 overseas) hired by competitive bid to actually implement projects. Contracted personnel in staff positions are hired via personal service contracts (PSCs) or trust funds which are controlled by mission or project financing. Information on such personnel stationed in Washington is complete. Information on such personnel at the mission level is reported back to a central personnel data bank (Source: RAMPS), but the guidance for the reporting is so vague that accurate reporting is rare. The effect in the field of this contracting function can be seen from Table 1. These data are for personnel in the field about whom USAID/ Washington has some knowledge. The data thus considerably underestimate the field reality. Thus, all of the increase in USAID presence in the field in the last 8 years is accounted for by contract hires. In 1988, the ratio of contractor to direct hire personnel was nearly 7 to 1. In some missions, it is even greater. For example, USAID Nepal reports a total of 500 staff, only 23 of whom are direct hire, yielding a contractor ratio of over 20 to 1. In terms of its staff core, then, the Agency is increasingly dependent on contract personnel. TABLE 1: OVERSEAS AID PERSONNEL LEVELS 1981 and 1988 1981 1988 % Increase (Decrease) U.S. Direct Hire 1115 1023 (8%) Foreign Service National 1731 1057 (39%) Contractors 1223 6698 480% Total 4069 8780 115% Source: J. Ballantine, Staff data input for the Woods Report, 1988. 2. Data Reporting and Analysis There are more than 50 separate automated data-processing systems in operation in USAID/Washington, plus an unknown number in overseas missions. For the most part, the financial, personnel and mission reporting systems at USAID are incompatible. Matching S&T payroll to S&T expenditures, for example, is not currently possible. The Agency spends $10 Million annually in Washington alone ($5000 per Washington-based employee) for hardware, software and maintenance services. (Source: Morss & Morss/1988.) No complete inventory of equipment or automation procurement exists for overseas missions. Mission computerized financial and personnel data are often sent to Washington in hard copy form and reentered manually into Washington computers because systems are not compatible. 3.5 Staff Levels Of USAID's total personnel, 3% are political appointees. This includes 9 PAS positions, 14 Schedule C positions, and 110 Administratively Designated positions. This section will address the full-time Foreign Service and civil service component of the 4700 total personnel. In 1988, there were 3061 permanent, full-time employees at USAID (not including 108 International Development Interns), a reduction of 12% since 1981. Approximately 56% of this total are Foreign Service Officers; the remainder are civil service. Of these 3061 personnel, only 468 (15%) are listed in science and technology areas. Not all of these 15% have S&T backgrounds or do S&T work. Functional data are very difficult to disaggregate. As of September 1988, when personnel designations are combined into functional categories, 53% of personnel were involved in Management and Administration, 19% in Development Support, 15% in S&T Programs, and 13% in Non-S&T Programs. Table 2 contains full data by staff category. Before looking within the S&T cadre, several items are of note. First, while the S&T program staff is larger than program staff for non S&T areas, only about a quarter of the total full time staff is engaged directly in actual programming of any type (S&T and non-S&T combined). Contractors carry out this function. The majority of staff (over 70%) manage, plan, and analyze. These last two categories, program analysts and program managers, consume 441 staff positions, or one for every 2 persons actually designing and implementing programs (S&T plus non-S&T). This is again evident when the "management/administration" grouping is disaggregated. While total direct hire staff has declined by 8% in the last five years, the number of contract managers has increased by 8% and the number of lawyers by 16%. Auditing/Inspection positions have increased by 14%, although only 87% are FS/GS filled. Over the last five years, S&T sectors had the largest staff decrease in percentage terms, and the analysis and management categories had the smallest decrease. If all of the staff functions (called "backstops") are rank ordered by number of personnel, 40% of the entire direct hire contingent are accounted for by only the top four functions, none of which are project implementation related. Within sector staffs, agriculture and capital projects/development loans (although USAID no longer makes development loans) account